Dog Training Glossary
This page is designed as a reference page for my private clients. I’m not big on jargon and I do my best to keep things simple, but I also want folks to be able to access the “why” behind our training if they’re so inclined. That’s the purpose of this page.
Some of these terms and concepts are used by other professionals and some are my own (phrases I commonly use, words I use to describe something, etc). Just a fair warning that without context, some of these terms or concepts may not fully make sense.
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I have to be honest, canine adolescence is not for the faint of heart! If you have an adolescent, you should know that you’re in for a ride. An adolescent dog is still maturing, both physically and otherwise. (See “maturity” in this glossary for more.) Most importantly, their brain is still developing. That means if we’re being fair and reasonable, we must adjust our expectations and shift into a proactive mindset. They can’t fully control themselves yet, so we should be taking responsibility for their behavior.
Remember that an adult dog (a fully mature dog) has the socio-cognitive capacity of a human toddler. Let that shape your expectations of your adolescent dog.
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“Agency” refers to a sentient being having a say in their own outcomes, i.e. what happens to them. It’s their ability to make decisions and determine things for themselves.
Our culture is mostly focused on control and obedience and overlooks the importance of allowing our dogs to have some agency in their lives. Agency is a well-established marker of welfare for any captive animal, so this is not a unique or new concept, but it isn’t widely acknowledged in the context of pet animals—yet. Ethical dog trainers are working to change this.
The recommendation to give a dog more agency isn’t suggesting we be permissive; it’s adding choices to their lives as much as we reasonably and safely can. Adding small choices such as their choice of toys, choice of interaction with you (or not), choice of which direction to go on a walk or when to stop and sniff go a long way to improving the quality of their lives.
Lastly, it’s important to keep in mind that dogs are captive animals, and as such, we already control nearly every aspect of their lives, even down to basic needs such as their meals and the bathroom. Our training and daily care does not have to establish or remind dogs of our control; we already have control, and our dogs know it.
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Arousal is the term used to describe a big rise in emotion, which results in a really amped up dog! The emotion could be excitement, nervousness, fear, something else, or a mix of things (most common). Unless an unaltered dog is in the presence of another unaltered dog of the opposite sex, “arousal” is not referring to sexual arousal.
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I think of a dog having an “association” with something as similar to an “impression” of something, or more simply put, it’s the dog’s overall feeling about something.
You often hear the term “positive association” in the context of crate training. The goal of crate training is to give the dog a positive association with the crate—a good overall impression or feeling about it. When they’re in the crate, they feel good; the crate is a good place.
Negative associations can develop from fears, anxieties, bad experiences, or punitive training techniques. Quality, ethical dog training works to undo negative associations to help dogs feel better about the world and their triggers. Neutrality is often a necessary step, but feeling good is always the end goal.
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Many folks make the mistake of using food as a way to make a dog do something they’re not comfortable doing. In fact, even many positive reinforcement trainers still make this mistake! If we stop and think about it, this is coercion. I hope we’d all agree that coercive actions aren’t a healthy go-to interaction (more of a last resort).
As science has evolved and we’ve come to understand more about modern dogs, we’ve realized that they’re emotionally complex beings (just like us). If we want to build trust with our dogs, we need to shift away from using food in a coercive way.
The same is true for trickery. Dogs quickly become suspicious of us if we use food to trick them into doing something on a regular basis. This is the opposite of “building trust.”
The good news: nothing requires you to use food in this negative way!
Instead of coercion and trickery, we rely on collaborative approaches, building strong reinforcement histories, and prioritizing our dog’s emotional experience. This builds trust and enhances our bond with our dog, while also supporting our training progress.
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A training method that breaks the target behavior into small parts, teaches the last part (the “final product”) first, and then backs up to include each additional part one by one.
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If you think about it, behavior is communication. (Seriously, think about it…) Behavior is one of the only methods of communication other animals can use with us humans.
The communication they express through their behavior is driven by their emotions and needs. They are saying something. An animal’s learning history also impacts their behavior. A behavior that’s been successful in the past is more likely to be repeated.
Before we start labeling behavior as “good” or “bad” or even as “desirable” or “undesirable,” we should first attempt to understand what function this behavior is serving.
What need is it expressing?
What learning history is informing it?
What emotions are at play?
When we attempt to change a dog’s behavior without exploring its function, we do our dogs a severe disservice. They’re not being stubborn. They’re not trying to dominate you. They’re saying something.
This is one reason why correcting (punishing) behavior we don’t like is unfair and unethical. Shutting down a behavior without understanding the emotions and/or meeting the needs that drive it is not only foolish, but cruel.
All sentient beings, dogs and humans included, communicate to be understood. Acknowledging that our dog’s behavior is communication helps us get curious about it and ask questions in an attempt to understand. Then we can go about modifying their behavior by meeting their needs, helping them address their big feelings, and creating a different learning history.
Yes, this approach is more involved than simply punishing the behavior we don’t like. But it’s the only approach that has a positive impact on the dog’s wellbeing.
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When teaching a new skill, we typically try to get the dog to do the behavior we’re looking for. For example, we may hold a piece of food and use our arm movement to try to lure a dog into the down position.
Capturing goes about teaching a new skill from an entirely different angle. When we use capturing, we wait for the dog to do the behavior we’re looking for on their own. Following our example with “down,” we’d wait for the dog to lie down without any prompting from us. When they do, we’d mark and reinforce to begin building a reinforcement history. Now the dog will offer it more often, and we can pair the verbal cue “down” with the action of lying down.
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The process of pairing a neutral item with something positive in order to create a positive association with the neutral item.
Example: If a dog has never been muzzled and we want to muzzle condition them, we’re pairing the muzzle with food to make the muzzle a really positive thing.
(Related: Counterconditioning - see definition in the list below)
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Too often, we expect dogs to tolerate handling, touch, petting, etc. without giving them any say. One of the most important things we can do to improve our dog’s welfare is give them some say in what happens to them. That’s what the concept of consent is all about.
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Casual interactions with people (adults and kids):
Dogs can and will “opt in” and “opt out” of interactions like greeting people and receiving affection. If someone wants to interact with your dog, coach them on how to offer their hands without reaching toward your dog. Allow your dog to move into their hands OR if your dog doesn’t move into their hands, respect their inaction as a “no, thank you.”
When your dog chooses to interact, frequently use the pet-pet-pause consent check protocol to make sure your dog continues feeling comfortable with touch and isn’t just tolerating it. If at any time you see your dog move away, duck/shrink away from a certain kind of touch, or display stress signals like lip licks or whale eye, proactively call them away from whoever is touching them and clearly instruct the person to stop touching.
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Husbandry (handling for vet care, grooming, at-home care, etc):
See “cooperative care” in this glossary.
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Cooperative care is an approach to various forms of handling/husbandry that allows the dog to opt in or out, and indicate that they’re ready or not ready. By giving them some say in what happens (agency), we build trust, lower their anxiety, decrease the stress (of everyone involved), and increase the dog’s overall welfare in the process.
Cooperative care can be used in pretty much any hands-on activity:
Grooming, such as brushing, nail trims, ear cleaning, bathing.
Medical needs such as applying eye drops, changing bandages, etc.
Putting on and taking off gear and clothing (jackets, harnesses, collars, leashes, etc).
Wiping paws
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Obedience is dead. Cooperation is a much better framework for how we live and interact with our beloved dogs. If we’re working together, then we’ll be building what I refer to as a “cooperative working relationship” between you and your dog.
We make working together enjoyable—something your dog looks forward to.
We build trust by listening to our dog just as much as we expect them to listen to us. (Cooperation is a two-way street.)
We focus on working together. Your relationship with your dog is collaborative.
With a cooperative foundation like this, everything is easier. You don’t earn your dog’s cooperation by commanding them to do this or that. You earn it by interacting in a way that gives them a voice, preserves their wellbeing, and honors their communication. That’s what we do here.
One final note: “Cooperation” doesn’t imply that you should be permissive. Giving your dog a say doesn’t mean you always do what they say—those are two very different things.
There will always be moments when we have to insist on something our dog doesn’t want to do. But when we’ve earned their trust, they’re far more likely to cooperate when we need them to, and those moments are much smoother overall.
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In short, counterconditioning is the process of changing how a dog feels about something.
Classical conditioning, as used in dog training, is the process of pairing a neutral item with something positive. The goal is to help the dog feel really good about it.
Counterconditioning is related, only counterconditioning is used when the dog already feels negatively about the item/trigger. Our goal is to help the dog feel better about it, so we pair the negative stimulus with something positive. The details, including the order in which you do this, are extremely important. It’s too easy to accidentally condition the other way around—turning your positive thing into a negative. Yikes!
Details matter here.
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“Criteria” refers to the behavior we want to mark and reinforce. For example, if we’re training a “down,” the criteria is that all four elbows are on the ground—that’s the point at which we mark and reinforce.
Sometimes our criteria is too hard. This frustrates and/or confuses the dog because they’re trying to figure out how to access the reinforcer (usually food) and nothing they’ve tried is working. In that case, we need to “lower the criteria”—aka make it easier. When the dog is successful with that step, we can try “raising the criteria” again.
TLDR: “Raising the criteria” and “lowering the criteria” is a jargon-y way of saying if something is too hard, make it easier. Once your dog gets it, gradually make it harder.
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An intentional effort to help a dog’s nervous system return to baseline. The best decompression efforts help a dog reset on a physical, mental and emotional level.
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Delivering food (reinforcement) from your hand directly to the dog’s mouth isn’t a bad thing, but it can be boring. It’s fine in low-key moments, but once distractions are present and/or the dog is feeling amped, it’s FAR more engaging to deliver food reinforcement a little differently…
My favorite delivery option is the treat toss (tossing a piece of food away for them to chase down), and “catch” is also fun (tossing it up in the air for them to catch). Both of these delivery methods involve movement, which is a helpful outlet for big feelings! It’s also more fun, which makes the dog more likely to engage with you again.
The one caveat is that the dog must see you toss/throw it. I usually very briefly hold it within their line of vision before tossing it. (Watch this short reel to see an example of using treat tosses in a key moment.)
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In short, desensitization is the process of getting used to things the dog finds triggering in some way. It could be something new that they’re uncertain about, something they’re afraid of, something that sends their arousal through the roof, etc.
Usually we will embark on desensitization efforts for something that will appear frequently in the dog’s environment. For example, if a dog isn’t used to being walked on a leash and has a big response when you leash them our desensitization efforts might include putting the leash on in the house and walking them around inside; letting the dog drag the leash behind them inside; clip and unclip the leash to their harness even when they’re not going on a walk, etc.
Our efforts are designed to take the “charge” out of the leash by making it no big deal. We’re making it less triggering, or less sensitized—hence desensitization.
Last thought: desensitization is often paired with counterconditioning (see definition).
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A normal behavior occurring out of context due to stress or anxiety.
Humping is a often a displacement behavior.
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A training strategy that aims to avoid “mistakes” as much as possible. We do this by breaking skills down into small parts, teaching them one by one, and adding the next step only once the first is mastered. This approach minimizes frustration for the dog, builds confidence, and ultimately helps them feel better about the skill. It’s honestly pretty incredible.
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We use food in dog training because it’s very clear to the dog, and it’s also easiest for us. I offer a more detailed explanation, as well as suggestions of different foods to consider, on my using food page.
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This term describes the process of teaching a dog that what they learned in one environment is still the same in other environments. Dogs don’t usually understand this without our help!
For example, when a dog learns how to sit, down, come, etc. in obedience class, they may be able to do those skills perfectly in class, but they often struggle to do those skills in other environments (at home, on a hike, etc). This isn’t because they’re being obstinate; it’s because the “picture” of what they’re used to seeing when we cue them is different (aka the environment is different), so they’re not actually sure what we’re asking them to do.
Each time the picture changes, we help our dogs bridge that gap by giving them lots of guidance and help.
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The process of gradually adjusting to a stimulus until it’s no longer something that concerns the dog.
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Dogs are always learning, and everything a dog has experienced about a particular trigger or situation—the good and the bad—influences their current behavior.
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The importance of this cannot be underestimated. This concept often gets lost in dog training efforts because we focus so much on getting the dog to listen to us. If we want our dog to listen to us, we also have to listen to them. We all communicate because we want to be understood—including animals. Allowing space for communication to go both ways (from human to dog and from dog to human) isn’t indulgent and it won’t create a demanding dog; it will create a dog who trusts you and who is more willing to work together with you. It creates a stronger connection and lets your dog know you're someone they can count on. We control nearly every aspect of our dogs’ lives (out of necessity), so allowing them to have a voice and make some choices goes a long, long way toward enhancing their overall wellbeing and their bond with you.
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It often feels like you’re running from your triggers and/or not giving your dog a chance to respond appropriately to a trigger, but rest assured that’s not the purpose of making space! The purpose is to put your dog in a position where they can actually learn! Remaining under threshold is the key to emotional learning, and thresholds require space.
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See “positive marker”
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Dogs continue to mature well past puppyhood. Most sources agree that dogs can hit full maturity around age 2, and some dogs continue to mature until age 3 or 3.5.
If you have a dog under 3 years old, we are likely having conversations about what to expect as they mature. The maturation process has a big impact on behavior. Here are a few things to expect:
Puppy training is important, but it’s only a starting point. Whenever I work with a dog under 6 months, I always make sure folks understand that puppy training is just the beginning. It cannot replace training as an adolescent or adult because as the puppy matures, their behavior and training needs change. I always chuckle when folks say their 16-week-old puppy is “already off-leash trained” because that’s guaranteed not to last! But a puppy who already understands what it means to recall will be able to move through the training process much faster as an adolescent.
Maturing often looks like “backsliding” in their training and behavior. You’ll find yourself thinking “wtf, we were in such a good place, what happened?!” Maturity happened. They’re growing into their personality, which is expressed through their behavior. For example, a naturally confident and jolly dog may have nailed their greeting protocol for saying hi to guests at 6 months old, but six months later they’re jumping on people again. This kind of “regression” is normal and expected. Your dog hasn’t forgotten and they aren’t being “willful” or “stubborn”; they’re just maturing. Thankfully, since you’ve already successfully trained it, it’ll be faster and easier the second time around.
Maturing often introduces new behavior challenges. This is especially true for dogs with significant sensitivities, such as fear of strangers. What was once a puppy who hides from strangers is now an adolescent who stands their ground and growls, for example. When significant “issues” show up in a puppy, don’t expect them to grow out of it, and don’t expect that training can “fix” it. Training can help and you absolutely should be hiring a trainer to help you if you can, but their “issues” aren’t a reflection of something that can be fixed. They’re a reflection of personality, disposition, sensitivities and preferences. Our job as their guardian is to understand their unique needs, how to meet them, and how to help them navigate our human world, which often doesn’t allow room for a sensitive dog. A quality trainer can and should help you learn how to advocate for your dog and help them feel as comfortable as possible.
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It is our responsibility to meet our dog’s needs, and their needs should be met before we ask them to change their behavior. Otherwise, our efforts aren’t likely to be successful, and we’re not being very fair.
Every dog is a little different, but all dogs have the following needs:
Food and water (that they don’t have to “earn”)
Daily exercise appropriate for their age, breed and personality
Rest - dogs need 14-18 hours a day depending on what phase of life they’re in
Engagement with us (training, play, etc)
Connection with us - every dog is different in what they prefer, but some dogs like snuggling, some like to be pet, some just like to be close and spend time with you. Listen to your dog and connect the ways they want to connect.
Opportunities to express natural dog behaviors (see enrichment page).
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Any cue that introduces or encourages movement, such as heel, recall (come), let’s go, ready find it, etc.
In contrast, we have stationary cues, which are cues that result in the dog remaining still.
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Your positive marker signals that a reinforcer is coming. A reinforcer must always follow your “yes”! We use a positive marker to let the dog know they’ve done the desired behavior. Think of it as taking a snapshot in their mind of whatever they’re doing when you say “yes”. The delivery of reinforcement afterward makes your dog more likely to do it again, and to feel better about doing it.
The order of “yes” and your reinforcer is important. We want “yes” to have predictive value—”yes” predicts a reinforcer (usually food). In order for your dog to key into the word “yes”, not the sound of you reaching into your treat bag, we must mark “yes” first, then reach for food and then deliver it to your dog. Same thing if food is already in your hand: mark “yes” first, then reach down to deliver it. Try to avoid marking and delivering simultaneously.
Yes ➡️ Reach ➡️ Deliver
I’m not being fussy about this just to be fussy; a clear or unclear positive marker can make or break your training success.
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The most important thing to understand about predictability is that it lowers anxiety. It teaches your dog what to expect which helps put them at ease.
Predictable patterns should be established in as many areas of life as possible, especially for anxious and/or adolescent dogs. Your entire daily schedule doesn’t have to be the exact same day in and day out, but a good starting point is to do the things that occur every day (like feeding, potty breaks, etc) in the exact same way every time.
Predictable patterns are also important in any area of life that causes your dog extra anxiety. That’s why we’ll do a lot of this during training!
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We can teach a word in such a way that a dog comes to expect that something specific happens after they hear it. Dogs feel less anxious when they know what to expect, and words with predictive value help us build effective training protocols.
Examples of words that could have a predictive value:
Positive marker (“yes” or a clicker) - predicts a reinforcer, which is usually food.
Warning cue - a “heads up” that predicts a certain action, often one that make the dog feel uncomfortable. For example, I say “clip” before clipping each nail. Another example: for dogs who have trouble with guests in the house, we’ll often ask them to say “moving!” before standing up.
“Ready, find it!” and “Ready, catch!” - “Ready” predicts that something fun is about to happen, either “find it” or “catch”. “Find it” predicts a treat toss away, and “catch” predicts a treat toss up.
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Overall, keep in mind that preoccupation with prey/prey drive is a normal, natural, appropriate dog behavior. It’s not ideal on a neighborhood walk, for example, but that doesn’t make the behavior inappropriate altogether.
We will work on this behavior in the contexts that pose a problem, but your dog should also have a safe outlet to express that behavior at other times.
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The frequency that you deliver reinforcers.
If you are marking and reinforcing several times one right after another, you are using a high rate of reinforcement. As you build your reinforcement history and your dog becomes more comfortable with what you’re asking, your rate of reinforcement should slow down. That means you’re not marking and reinforcing as often.
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An intentional effort to support a dog after a stimulating event, such as seeing a trigger or a series of triggers.
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The more a skill or action is reinforced (usually with food), the easier it is for the dog to perform the behavior, and the dog is more likely to offer it unprompted (demo with explanation in caption here). This is often how we encourage certain behaviors in certain contexts.
Each time you reinforce a behavior it’s like putting a deposit into that behavior’s bank account, and once you have enough, you can start making withdrawals (asking them to do it in challenging situations or without food, for example). If you don’t have enough deposits, you’re going to be really limited on the withdrawals you can make.
This is why training takes a lot of food in the beginning! Don’t skimp.
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I’m shifting to using the term “reinforcer” instead of “reward” because it’s far more accurate.
Those words also connote different things to us humans. “Reward” implies that you’ve earned it, and “earning” is NOT a proper use of positive reinforcement in dog training. “Reinforcer” implies that we’re strengthening something, and that’s EXACTLY what positive reinforcement in dog training is intended to do.
If a dog trainer claims they’re using food/play/any reinforcer to “reward good behavior”, move on to a different trainer! This is doubly true if they also say they’re “correcting bad behavior” and/or using those actions to explain their use of the words “yes” and “no”. All of that language is a HUGE red flag that the dog trainer doesn’t truly understand how to use positive reinforcement. Sadly, this is very common.
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Social buffering refers to the support a dog can receive just from the presence of someone they feel safe with. If you have a reactive or fearful dog, for example, there will likely be moments when I coach you to get closer to your dog. Simply coming closer and being “in the moment” with them makes a difference.
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Any cue that results in the dog remaining still where they are, such as sit, down, place.
In contrast, we also have moving cues, which are cues that introduce or encourage movement.
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Duration, distance, and distraction, often referred to as “the 3 D’s”, are the three variables that needed to be added to make a particular skill more useful.
For example, most dogs know how to sit, but its function is limited to a trick. They can do it, but it can’t be meaningfully applied in real life. To make it functional, you’d add each of the three D’s to your training sessions. They’re added one at a time starting at a very easy level that the dog can handle, and slowly working up to more difficult challenges.
Not every skill needs to have the 3 D’s applied, but it’s especially helpful for stationary cues like down, sit, place, stand, paws up, etc.
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This is the point at which your dog can see the trigger but not get triggered. When your dog is at or below this point, “the work” (training) can be applied and progress can be made.
But once your dog is triggered, they are now beyond the point at which training can be applied in any meaningful way. Their learning brain is “offline” and they’re not processing anything we’re trying to teach. All we can do once they’re triggered is make space and try again from a distance.
As you make progress with your dog’s training in below threshold moments, your dog’s new emotional response begins to kick in and you’ll be able to work closer and closer to your dog’s triggers.
I highly, highly recommend watching this reel for a visual demonstration of how the three terms training, management and threshold work.
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This is a less stressful way to touch a part of the dog’s body that they’re sensitive about.
Reach out and touch a less sensitive area, and then allow your hand to slide along the dog’s body to the more sensitive area.
For example, if the dog is sensitive about their paws being handled, touch their shoulder and slide your hand down their leg to the paw.
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Training and management are two sides of the same coin, and in order for training to be effective, you cannot skip management!
Training is what we do to create new behavior (teach new skills and patterns, condition new emotional responses, etc).
Management is what we do to prevent our dog from rehearsing unwanted behaviors in the meantime.
The right time to use your training skills is when your dog is below threshold. If your dog is already at or likely to be pushed over threshold, then training will not be effective, so you should use your management skills instead.
Remember: the things we do to manage the behavior (keep our dog from reacting, for example) are important, but they aren’t helping the dog respond differently next time. They’re only helping us get through this moment with minimal setbacks. Only our training efforts—what we do below threshold—actually changes behavior.
Watch this reel to hear me talk through how training, management, and threshold work together.
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This refers to what happens in a dog’s mind when they see several triggers in a relatively short period of time. Dog, scooter, barking dog, squirrel, for example. When they see too many things in a row, they may handle the first few okay, but then explode on the last one, even if it’s not a “big” or even typical trigger. It’s as if the residual stress of seeing each trigger “stacks” together to create that big explosion. This happens to all dogs. It’s always wise to keep this in mind and make extra space when there’s a lot going on.
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A warning cue is NOT associated with punishment or doing something wrong. It’s just a heads up that something is about to happen.
When we consistently say a warning cue and immediately follow it with the same action, the dog begins to pair the cue and the action. This gives the cue predictive value, which means whenever they hear the word, they’ll know what comes next. Predictability can lower anxiety, and it also makes uncomfortable actions less jarring. We commonly add warning cues when working on handling, leaving the house, stranger danger, etc.